Historical Islam

Islamic history begins in a small cave where the Prophet Muhammed receives a revelation from the One God, and a movement quickly rises into a series of empires and a worldwide phenomenon. Although it is the youngest among the world religions, it is the fastest growing religion and scholars expect it to surpass Christianity in numbers by the end of the century.

Objectives:

• identify people and events significant to Islamic history
• describe the historical relationship between Muslim and non-Muslim communities
• explain how significant people and events in Islamic history contribute to Muslim identity, culture and religious practice.

Pre-Islamic Arabia

The Quran refers to the Arab history before Islam as one of foolishness and ignorance, not so much in terms of knowledge, but in moral consciousness. Arabic people recognized Allah as the supreme creator, but many groups also integrated worship of other deities. The Quran repudiates the worship of these gods, and reinforces the concept that there are no other gods but the One God.

For the people of Makkah (Mecca), and most of ancient Arabia, haram was a sacred place where no living thing scan be harmed. The chief haram was a shrine called Ka’ba which was an ancient square building containing many idols and images of gods and goddesses, among them included figures that may have represented Jesus and Mary from Christianity. The shrine also contained an unusual black stone,  believed by scholars to be a meteorite, that has been revered since pre-Islamic times to today. Believed to have been built by Abraham and his son Ishmael who had settled with his mother Hagar in the valley of Makkah (Q 14:37).

Before Islam emerged in the 7^th century, Arabia was already bordered by the Christian Byzantine Empire in the west and the Zoroastrian Empire of the Sasanians (Iran/Persia) in the East. The city of Mecca was 40 miles inland from the Red Sea and although it was dominated by the Quraysh tribe it was also open to a diverse population of Jewish and Christian communities who had lived in the region together for centuries. The Mecca community also included desert hermits who practiced holiness and healing as well as Arabs known as hanifs, or ‘pious ones’, who strictly adhered to ethical monotheism of Judaism and Christianity.

To learn more about Pre-Islamic Arabia, watch the video below.

Life of the Prophet Muhammed (570 – 632)

Muhammed was born into the Quraysh tribe. He was orphaned by the time he was only a few years old, and he was taken in by his paternal grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and later by his uncle, Abu Talib. Mohammed worked in the caravan trade, and in his twenties he accepted a marriage proposal from a rich widow named Khadijah. He was known as al-Amin, ‘the faithful’ or ‘trustworthy’, and he was know to seclude himself in a cave during Ramadan. It was during this seclusion that Muhammed is believed to has received the call to prophethood and his first revelation. to learn more about the life Muhammad, watch the BBC documentary below.

Hijrah from Mecca to Medina (622)

After Muhammad had preached for more than a decade, a growing opposition compelled him to send some of his adherents to Ethiopia where a Christian ruler extended protection and seventy of Muhammad’s followers left for the northern town of Yathrib to establish a new Islamic movement.  This city was later to renamed Medina (“The City”), and in 622 Muhammed and his closest friend, Abu Bakr al-Siddeeq, joined the emigrants.  In Mecca, however, plotters arrived at Muhammad’s home to find his cousin, ‘Ali, instead and the set off in pursuit.  Muhammad and Abu Bakr had taken refuge in a cave, and the Meccans passed by without noticing. Muhammad and Abu Bakr proceeded to Medina where they were welcomed by the Medinans and the seventy Meccans who had gone ahead to prepare the way.

This journey is referred to as the Hijrah from which the beginning of the Islamic era as well as a new way of life is dated. From this time, the organizational principle of the community was not based on blood kinship, but on the kinship of Islam. The men who accompanied Muhammad on the Hijrah were called the Muhajiroon, “those that made the Hijrah” or the “emigrants”. Those in Medina who became Muslims were called the Ansar, or “helpers.”

Islam was well received in Medina, and in 624, Muhammad and his supporters moved against the polytheists of Mecca. A series of battles followed and culminated into the victorious Battle of the Trench, also known as the Battle of the Confederates, which established Medina as the first Muslim community. Watch the video below to learn about this well-known battle.

The First Muslim Community

After the Battle of the Trench, the clans accepting Muhammad as the Prophet of God formed a federation and established the Constitution of Medina which defined the Islamic society as a community, ummah, separate from all others.  The Constitution addressed the role of non-Muslims in the community; polytheists were not tolerated, yet Jews were described as dhimmis, protected people of the book, with specific rights and obligations. This first constitution established a precedent for the treatment of non-Muslim peoples during the later conquests.  Christians and Jews, upon payment of a nominal tax, were allowed religious freedom and, while maintaining their status as non-Muslims, were associate members of the Muslim state.  This criteria was clearly described in agreements such as the ‘Pact of Umar’ which was addressed in the Judaism lesson

The Conversion of Mecca

In 629, Muhammed and an army of fifteen hundred returned to Mecca and conquered the city without bloodshed. He reclaimed the Ka’ba shrine and destroyed the idols within it to end polytheistic practices there.  At the same time Muhammed’s former opponents, ‘Amr ibn al-’As (the future conqueror of Egypt) and Khalid ibn al-Walid (known later as the “Sword of God”) converted to Islam and swore allegiance to Muhammad.  Three years later in 632, Muhammed died from sickness.

The time of the four Caliphs (632-661)

With the death of Muhammad, the Muslim community was faced with the problem of succession.  The majority of Muslims, Sunni, who follow the sunnah (Traditions of the Prophet) did not believe that Muhammed had designated a successor nor specified how one should be chosen. A minority community called Shi’a (‘party’) believed he had appointed his son-in-law to succeed him. This early rift set the stage for divisions between Sunni and Shi’a muslims today.

There were four persons marked as khalifah, one who acts on behalf of another; 1.) Abu Bakr al-Siddeeq had not only accompanied Muhammad to Medina ten years before, he had been appointed to take the place of the Prophet as leader of public prayer during Muhammad’s last illness. 2.) Umar ibn al-Khattab was a trusted Companion of the Prophet. 3.) Uthman ibn ‘Affan an early convert, and 4.) ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib who was Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law.  At a meeting to decide the new leadership the group designated Abu Bakr as the khalifah of Muhammad.

The role of khalifa, later referred to as caliph would serve not only as religious leader, imam, but also as the administrative head of the community and amir, or commander, of the Muslims. Abu Bakr’s leadership was short, and eventually all four caliphs ruled from 632 to 661. From 661 to 750, the Muslim world was ruled by a hereditary dynasty known as the Ummayyads who were later defeated by the Abbasid dynasty who ruled until 1258.

Umayyed Caliphate (661-750)

Umayyad dynasty, also spelled Omayyad, the first great Muslim dynasty to rule the empire of the caliphate (661–750 CE), sometimes referred to as the Arab kingdom (reflecting traditional Muslim disapproval of the secular nature of the Umayyad state). The Umayyads, headed by Abū Sufyān, were a largely merchant family of the Quraysh tribe centred at Mecca. They had initially resisted Islam, not converting until 627, but subsequently became prominent administrators under Muhammad and his immediate successors. In the first Muslim civil war (fitnah; 656–661)—the struggle for the caliphate following the murder of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, the third caliph (reigned 644–656)—Abū Sufyān’s son Muʿāwiyah, then governor of Syria, emerged victorious over ʿAlī, Muhammad’s son-in-law and fourth caliph. Muʿāwiyah then established himself as the first Umayyad caliph. To learn more, watch the knowledgepedia video below:

Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258)

The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad’s uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE.

The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa, modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph Al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient Sasanian capital city of Ctesiphon. The Abbasid period was marked by reliance on Persian bureaucrats (notably the Barmakid family) for governing the territories as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (national community). Persian customs were adopted by the ruling elite, and they began patronage of artists and scholars. Baghdad became a center of science, culture, philosophy and invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam.

Ayyubid Dynasty and the Christian Crusades

The Ayyubid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. The dynasty ruled large parts of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries. Saladin had risen to vizier of Fatimid Egypt in 1169, before abolishing the Fatimids in 1171. Three years later, he was proclaimed sultan following the death of his former master, the Zengid ruler Nur al-Din. For the next decade, the Ayyubids launched conquests throughout the region and by 1183, their domains encompassed Egypt, Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, the Hejaz, Yemen and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. Most of the Crusader states including the Kingdom of Jerusalem fell to Saladin after his victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. 

Saladin is considered among the greatest leaders of all time, not only due to his acumen on the battlefield, but also in his ability to govern a tolerant society and a diverse population of Muslims, Jews and Christians during his reign in the kingdom of Jerusalem during the Christian crusades.

The Al Jazeera series below, Crusades from an Arab Perspective, highlights the role of Saladin as a leader and ruler.

Ottoman Caliphate (1517-1924)

The Ottoman Caliphate under the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire, was the last Sunni Islamic caliphate of the late medieval and the early modern era. During the period of Ottoman growth, Ottoman rulers claimed caliphal authority since Murad I’s conquest of Edirne in 1362. Later Selim I, through conquering and unification of Muslim lands, became the defender of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to caliphate in the Muslim world.

The demise of the Ottoman Caliphate took place because of a slow erosion of power in relation to Western Europe, and because of the end of the Ottoman state in consequence of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the League of Nations mandate. Abdülmecid II, the last Ottoman caliph, held his caliphal position for a couple of years after the partitioning, but with Mustafa Kemal’s secular reforms and the subsequent exile of the royal Osmanoğlu family from the Republic of Turkey in 1924, the caliphal position was abolished.

In the video below, Al Jazeera tells the story of the 1,300-year-long struggle for the caliphate and looks at how different dynasties rose and fell – ending with the decline of the Ottoman caliphate.

The Safavid Empire (1501-1722)

The Safavid Empire was founded by the Safavids, a Sufi order that goes back to Safi al-Din (1252-1334). Safi al-Din converted to Shi’ism and was a Persian nationalist. The Safavid brotherhood was originally a religious group, and it became strong enough to challenge the Ottomans in the west and the Mughals in the east. Over the following centuries the brotherhood became stronger, by attracting local warlords and by political marriages.

In the 15th century the brotherhood became more militarily aggressive, and waged a jihad (Islamic holy war) against parts of what are now modern Turkey and Georgia. By 1501, the Safavid Shahs declared independence when the Ottomans outlawed Shi’a Islam in their territory. The Safavid Empire was strengthened by important Shi’a soldiers from the Ottoman army who had fled from persecution. When the Safavids came to power, Shah Ismail was proclaimed ruler at the age of 14 or 15, and by 1510 Ismail had conquered the whole of Iran.

Mughul Empire

The Mughal (or Mogul) Empire ruled most of India and Pakistan in the 16th and 17th centuries. It consolidated Islam in South Asia, and spread Muslim (and particularly Persian) arts and culture as well as the faith. The Mughals were Muslims who ruled a country with a large Hindu majority. However for much of their empire they allowed Hindus to reach senior government or military positions.

The Mughals brought many changes to India:

• Centralised government that brought together many smaller kingdoms
• Delegated government with respect for human rights
• Persian art and culture
• Persian language mixed with Arabic and Hindi to create Urdu
• Periods of great religious tolerance
• A style of architecture (e.g. the Taj Mahal)
• A system of education that took account of pupils’ needs and culture

A variety of distinct and unique empires and dynasties, many small but very significant, shaped the Middle East and Asia Minor for several centuries. For a quick overview of Islamic empires, watch the video below.

Islam and Modern Countries/States

The decline, or dismantling, of Islamic Empires let to the rise of Islamic and/or Islam-based countries governing a Muslim-majority population. Among the Islamic states are: Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Mauritania, Oman, and Yemen. Other states where Islam is the politically defined state religion are: Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Algeria, Malaysia, Maldives, Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Somalia and Brunei.

According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries. Worldatlas.com (April 2017) identified 45 ‘Islamic countries’. Muslim-majority countries include: Niger, Indonesia, Sudan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sierra Leone, Djibouti, Albania, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Chad, The Gambia, Guinea, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Mali, Northern Cyprus, Nigeria, Senegal, Syria, Lebanon, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Turkey and Uzbekistan. According to a 2010 study and released January 2011, Jones (2005) defines a “large minority” as being between 30% and 50%, and this definition adds Bosnia and Herzegovina, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kazakhstan, Macedonia, Nigeria, and Tanzania. To learn more about the role of Islam in state structures, watch the Crash Course in World history video below.

Islamic Revolutionary Radicalism in the 21st century

The controversial term “radical Islam” refers to a very small number of small Islamic groups that integrate politics and religious practice such as ISIS. Recent surveys, however, have found that in countries with high Muslim populations, the majority of Muslims have overwhelmingly negative views of terrorist groups like ISIS. The popular Arab drama series, Black Crows (2017), paints a picture of the Islamic State, also known as ISIS, as a brutal criminal organization run by corrupt and hypocritical leaders. to learn more, watch the film trailer below.

While Muslims aim to clear up misconceptions about their faith, the religion continues to spread rapidly. Today, Islam is the world’s fastest growing religion. Experts predict Islam will surpass Christianity as the largest religion by the end of the century.

The following documentary provides a more thorough overview of the history of Islam from the early pre-Islamic period to the present era.

Islam in Social and Historical Context

This lesson offered a brief introduction to the people and events significant to Islamic history, and it described the historical relationship between Muslim and non-Muslim communities. Information in this lesson provides the social and historical context for people and events in Islamic history that shape contribute to Muslim identity, culture and religious practice today.

References & Resources

• A Brief History of Islam
• The Spread of Islam, Khan Academy
• Ottoman, Safavid and Mughul Empires
• Pre-Islamic Arabia, Lumen Learning

For Discussion: Research and describe an historically significant person or event in Islamic history. 1. Describe person or event, 2.) explain scholarly evidence of person or event, 3.) Describe how this person or event is significant in Islamic memory. Include references, and always respond to other student posts in discussion.

When you complete the discussion, move on to the Quran lesson.